Stolen Innocence: The Systematic Enslavement of Korean Women Under Japanese Colonial Rule
The Japanese Imperial army’s comfort station system is the largest case of government sponsored human trafficking and sexual slavery in modern history.[1] Under Japanese colonialism women and girls as young as 11 years of age were subjugated to unimaginable horrors.[2] Despite Korean women being the primary targets, the Japanese military abducted and coerced women from various regions like mainland China, Taiwan, and Southeast Asian countries into sexual servitude absent of consent.[3] One such story, recounts the lived experiences of Chong Ok Sun, a Korean woman forced into the comfort station system at the age of 13. While on her way to fetch water for her parents she was forcibly taken by a Japanese soldier to a police station truck where she was subjected to sexual assault by multiple police officers who silenced her by gagging her with socks – violently assaulting her until her left eye was permanently damaged.[4]Chong Ok Sun’s testimonial portrays the horrific nature of Japanese colonialism and provides insight into the physical and psychological sufferings endured by Korean women during this period.
One pivotal event that influenced the systematic enslavement of these women was Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in 1931. The occupation of Manchuria provided Japan with valuable resources such as coal, iron ore, and fertile land for agriculture.[5] Moreover, it serves as a strategic base for further expansion into China and other parts of Asia. This territorial acquisition fueled Japan’s imperial ambitions, leading them to aggressively pursue dominance throughout the region.
Shannon Heit, author of “Waging sexual warfare: Case studies of rape warfare used by the Japanese Imperial Army during World War 2” argues that the impetus of the Japanese Imperial brothel system can be traced back to the “rape of Nanjing” [6] – a horrific manifestation of imperial aggression, revealing the inhumanity and cruelty of Japanese forces. During the invasion of Nanjing in 1937, Japanese soldiers committed heinous acts of violence, including mass murder and sexual assault of all noncombatants regardless of gender and age.[7] Facing international criticism for their soldiers’ behavior, the Japanese Imperial government developed a network of comfort stations as a unique strategy to protect its public image – arguing that this strategy would ultimately prevent mass rape of conquered populations. This led to the utilization of rape warfare as a crucial method for Japan to establish its control over colonized populations.
The establishment and operation of military brothels by the Japanese military was not an isolated incident but rather a deliberate strategy implemented to maintain control over occupied territories such as Korea. By exploiting Korean women’s bodies for sexual gratification under the guise of providing comfort to soldiers far away from home, Japan sought to assert dominance over both individuals and communities.
Existing historiography surrounding Japanese colonialism often focuses on the broader political and military aspects. However, there is a scarcity of comprehensive scholarship specifically addressing the lived experiences of Korean women within the comfort stations, as well as what they faced once the system was destroyed. Article “Disputes over the Japanese Military “Comfort Women” System and its perception in History offer strong information on the contemporary political climate surrounding comfort women but unlike Article “Korean Sex Slaves and No. 606 Injections” it does not offer any in depth information on the racial hierarchy within the military sex system, nor the reasoning why Korean women served a much larger number of soldiers than other Asian slaves.[8]
This essay examines how Japanese colonization of Korea from 1937-1945 during the Second Sino-Japanese war and how it significantly altered the lives and social status of Korean women, particularly evident in their forced participation in the brothel systems created by the Japanese Imperial Army. The primary archive for this essay consists of testimonies from Korean “comfort women”, this information will examine to what extent Korean women were subjugated to sexual slavery during their recruitment and treatment at the “comfort stations”. In addition, official records from ATIS are included to highlight the Japanese Imperial Army’s role in the creation of the brothel system and address the logistical and technical aspects of the stations. By examining a variety of sources through a comparative lens, patterns and variations in experiences can be identified, offering a more nuanced understanding of the impact of Japanese colonialism on Korean women.
The significance of this analysis lies in uncovering the previously silenced narratives of Korean women and contributing to the historiography of women’s experiences during wartime colonialism and it helps us better understand the impact colonialism has on marginalized societies. Moreover, it is evidence that rape and other forms of sexual violence against women during wartime are not solely a matter of gender, but a broader concern of human rights.
The historical context of the Second Sino Japanese War provides a critical backdrop to understanding the impact of Japanese colonialism on the lives and status of Korean women. Spanning from 1937 to 1945, this brutal conflict emerged due to Japan’s aggressive expansionist policies in East Asia. At its core, colonialism refers to the domination and exploitation of one country by another – often driven by economic motives and accompanied by cultural assimilation efforts.[9]
Japanese colonization of Korea began with the signing of the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910.[10] The colonization was justified by Japan to modernize and develop Korea, but it was a brutal period of subjugation and exploitation. By imposing their language, customs, and ideologies upon Korean society, Japan aimed to erase or marginalize local cultures while simultaneously establishing a sense of dominance over them. This deliberate erasure created an environment where exploitation could thrive unchecked.
As the Japanese forces advanced into occupied territories, they employed policies aimed at maintaining control over conquered populations, thus leading to the emergence of “comfort stations” or brothels where thousands of women were forced into slavery. These women were euphemistically referred to as “comfort” women, or “inafu” – combining the Chinese characters meaning “comfort or solace” (i-an) with woman (fu).”[11], their lives forever scarred by physical abuse, emotional trauma, and social stigmatization.
The experiences of comfort women were marked by extreme brutality and degradation. They faced constant abuse at the hands of Japanese soldiers who viewed them as mere objects for their pleasure. These women endured rape, beatings, forced absorptions, sexually transmitted diseases, and even death in some cases due to the horrific conditions they were subjected to. By the 1930’s brothels were established in various occupied territories including Korea, China, and Southeast Asia.[12] Korean women were obtained using abduction and other forms of coercion. In addition, research by historians Su Zhiliang and Chen Lifei assert that aside from to forced coercion, many Korean women were lured into the brothel system by false promises of employment.[13] Their claims are further supported by testimonies of survivors like that of Hwang So Gyun.
In 1936 Hwang So Gyun, born as the second daughter of a day laborer in Kangdong County left her village with the promise of a factory job. She states that “Because my family was so poor, I gladly accepted this offer of a well-paid job.” After indicating her interest in the opportunity, Hwang So Gyun was taken to the railway station in a Japanese truck where 20 or so other Korean girls were waiting. After a few days of travel, they had reached a big house at the River Mudinjian in China. She was assigned to a room with a straw bag to sleep on, with a number on the door. After two days of waiting, without knowing what was happening, a Japanese soldier in army uniform, wearing a sword came to her room, pulled her hair, dragged her to the floor and raped her. She notes “From then on, every night I was assaulted by 15 to 20 men”.[14]
Pyong Gap Min, author of Korean “Comfort Women”, notes that employment fraud was effective as most Korean families at the time were very poor due to the exploitative economic policies of the Japanese government.[15]Nevertheless, like what happened with Chong Ok Sun, abductions were prevalent because Korean intermediaries collaborated and exploited the recruitment process. Korean brokers, acting as intermediaries between Japanese military officials and protentional comfort women, played a critical part in identifying and recruiting women for comfort stations. These intermediaries, often motivated by economic gains or political pressure from their Imperial Japanese overlords, collaborated with the Japanese military officials to ensure a steady supply of women for comfort stations.
Fig. 1 Documents from ATIS REPORT 120 detailing the rules and regulations set by the Japanese Imperial Army.
However, the organization and management of the comfort stations were primarily under the control of Japanese military officials.[16] These officials played a crucial role in overseeing the day-to-day operations of the comfort stations and maintaining discipline among the comfort women. Rules and regulations were implemented to govern the conduct of both the comfort women and the military personnel utilizing their services (see fig. 1).[17]
Within the comfort stations, daily life was marked by strict routines and harsh living conditions. Comfort women were subjected to stringent military-style regulations, including fixed working hours and scheduled appointments that varied according to the soldier’s rank. Chong Ok Sun testified that she, along with 400 other Korean young girls were forced to serve 5,000 Japanese soldiers as sex slaves – up to 40 men per day.[18]
Sel J. Hwahng, author of “Vaccination, Quarantine, and Hygiene: Korean Sex slaves and No. 606 Injections during the Pacific War” notes that “It may appear unfathomable that Korean females could be raped this frequently, but this was possible because their workday was divided into two or three periods to serve soldiers of different ranks. [19] In some brothels, soldiers were given ‘brothel cards’ that they received through the committee to pay for the sexual services, whereas other brothels the soldiers paid cash to owners.[20]
The lives of Comfort women were governed by a system that treated them as disposable commodities, with little regard for their humanity. Chong Ok Sun recounts that resistance was futile, “Each time I protested, they hit me or stuffed rags in my mouth. One held a matchstick to my private parts until I obeyed him. My private parts were oozing with blood”.[21] She proceeds with her testimony by sharing an event in which a Korean girl in her group questioned why they had to serve such a large number, up to 40, of men every day. In response to her question, the Japanese company commander Yamamoto ordered her to be physically assaulted with a sword as a form of punishment. Chong Ok Sun’s group watched helplessly as they stripped her naked, restrained her legs and hands, and rolled her over a board embedded with nails until the nails became coated in blood and fragments of her skin. Ultimately, they decapitated her. [22]
Lack of privacy, physical abuse, and the constant threat of sexually transmitted diseases created an atmosphere of perpetual fear and despair. In her book “Medical Examination in No. 606 injections,” Sel K. Hwahng highlights the lack of medical attention they received, documenting cases where women were “under nourished and probably suffered from a variety of ailments and diseases resulting from frequent rapes, physical abuse, and torture she had to endure and a variety of venereal diseases, such as gonorrhea and syphilis, inverted uteri, broken bones, burns, and bruises. Many were barren, disfigured, or disabled from the abuse, and were confined to a small room lying on a filthy bare mattress or perhaps straw with a blanket thrown over it”.[23]
The comfort women system not only violated these women’s human rights but also served as an instrument for further cultural assimilation. By forcing them into sexual servitude for the Japanese soldiers, it reinforced the notion that Korean bodies existed solely for the pleasure of the colonial masters. It dehumanized these women while simultaneously reinforcing patriarchal norms within both societies.
Moreover, this system perpetuated a culture of shame and silence that further marginalized these women within their own societies. Many victims felt immense guilt and suffered stigmatization even after they managed to escape or were liberated from captivity.[24] In South Korean nationalist discourse, sex slave survivors represent “damaged, disgraceful, and unchaste female bodies that lack the “feminine essence”.[25] The prevailing conservative norms regarding sex and purity in Korean society exasperated the shame and isolation experiences by these women. They were often ostracized by their families and communities, leading to a sense of social dislocation and abandonment. [26] This contradiction reflects how deeply ingrained patriarchal norms can perpetuate victim-blaming even in instances where individuals are clearly victims.
The physical and mental well-being of the comfort women was profoundly impacted by Japanese colonialism. These women endured unimaginable physical suffering and psychological traumas that left lasting scars on their bodies and minds. Their experiences continue to reverberate through generations, highlighting the urgent need for acknowledgement, support, and justice for these brave survivors and their families.[27]
According to the United Nations Economic and Social Council, only about 25 percent of comfort women are said to have survived the horrific daily abuse.[28] However, a few dozen women who were forced into sexual slavery are still alive. One of them is Yong Soo Lee, a 90-year-old survivor who has been vocal about her desire to receive an apology from the Japanese government. She told the Washington Post in 2015 “I never wanted to give comfort to those men” “I don’t want to hate or hold a grudge, but I can never forgive what happened to me.”[29]
In recent years, there has been a growing movement seeking justice for these victims known as the comfort women redress movement with Wednesday demonstrations (see Fig.1). Every Wednesday since January 1992, activists gather outside the Japanese embassy in Seoul demanding an official apology from Japan along with compensation for surviving victims. These demonstrations have gained international attention and support from various organizations worldwide.[30] They have also put pressure on the Japanese government to acknowledge and take responsibility for its wartime atrocities.
Finally, in 2015 an official agreement was made between Korea and Japan. The ‘comfort women’ agreement included Japan acknowledging and apologizing for its involvement in the sexual enslavement of Korean women in military brothels before and during World War II. In addition, Japan offered financial support through a foundation managed by the Korean government to air surviving victims.[31]
The legacy of Japanese colonialism looms large in the history of comfort women. At a larger societal level, the revelation of the comfort system exposed the deep wounds inflicted by Japanese colonialism on Korean society. It brought to the forefront the injustices and atrocities committed against the Korean people, leading to increased resentment and anger towards the former colonizers. The comfort women issue is now a symbol of the larger struggle for justice and condolement of the hardships endured during the colonial era. By understanding how power imbalances and colonial ambitions can lead to the exploitation of vulnerable populations, we can work towards creating a more just and equitable world.
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[1] “Comfort Women Resource Center,” UCLA CKS - Comfort Women Resource Center, accessed November 27, 2023, https://www.international.ucla.edu/cks/care/overview/251594.
[2] Pyong Gap Min, essay, in Korean “Comfort Women”: Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2021), 84.
[3] Li Hongxi, “The Extreme Secrecy of the Japanese Army’s ‘Comfort Women’ System,” Chinese Studies in History 53, no. 1 (2019): 28, https://doi.org/10.1080/00094633.2019.1682376.
[4] United Nations and Economic and Social Council, eds., Commission on Human Rights, 1996, 13.
[6] Shannon Heit, “Waging Sexual Warfare: Case Studies of Rape Warfare Used by the Japanese Imperial Army during World War II,” Women’s Studies International Forum 32, no. 5 (2009): 363–70, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2009.07.010, 365.
[7] Shannon Heit, “Waging Sexual Warfare: Case Studies of Rape Warfare Used by the Japanese Imperial Army during World War II,” Women’s Studies International Forum 32, no. 5 (2009): 365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2009.07.010, 365.
[8] Sel J. Hwahng, “Vaccination, Quarantine, and Hygiene: Korean Sex Slaves and No. 606 Injections during the Pacific War of World War II,” Substance Use & Misuse 44, no. 12 (2009): 1768–1802, https://doi.org/10.3109/10826080902963480, 1770.
[9] Ronald J. Horvath, “A Definition of Colonialism,” Current Anthropology 13, no. 1 (1972): 45–57, https://doi.org/10.1086/201248, 46-47.
[10] Pyong Gap Min, “Korean ‘Comfort Women,’” Gender & Society 17, no. 6 (2003): 938–57, https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243203257584, 943.
[11] Julie McCarthy and Photos by Cheryl Diaz Meyer, “Photos: Why These World War II Sex Slaves Are Still Demanding Justice,” NPR, December 4, 2020, https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/12/04/940819094/photos-there-still-is-no-comfort-for-the-comfort-women-of-the-philippines.
[12] Pyong Gap Min, essay, in Korean “Comfort Women”: Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2021), 74-75.
[13] Su Zhiliang and Chen Lifei, “A Valuable Document Revealing the Japanese Army’s ‘Comfort Stations’: Reading the Jinhua Gyerim Association Articles and Register,” Chinese Studies in History 53, no. 1 (2019): 14–27, https://doi.org/10.1080/00094633.2019.1682398, 17.
[14] United Nations and Economic and Social Council, eds., Commission on Human Rights, 1996, 15.
[15] Pyong Gap Min, essay, in Korean “Comfort Women”: Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2021), 90.
[16] “ATIS REPORT No. 120,” 국사편찬위원회 전자사료관 - 원문뷰어서비스, accessed November 27, 2023, http://archive.history.go.kr/image/viewer.do?catalog_id=AUS043_57_00C0411&gid=AUS043_57_00C0411, 16.
[17] “ATIS REPORT No. 120,” 국사편찬위원회 전자사료관 - 원문뷰어서비스, accessed November 27, 2023, http://archive.history.go.kr/image/viewer.do?catalog_id=AUS043_57_00C0411&gid=AUS043_57_00C0411, 16.
[18] United Nations and Economic and Social Council, eds., Commission on Human Rights, 1996, 13.
[19] Sel J. Hwahng, “Vaccination, Quarantine, and Hygiene: Korean Sex Slaves and No. 606 Injections during the Pacific War of World War II,” Substance Use & Misuse 44, no. 12 (2009): 1768–1802, https://doi.org/10.3109/10826080902963480, 1171.
[20] “ATIS REPORT No. 120,” 국사편찬위원회 전자사료관 - 원문뷰어서비스, accessed November 27, 2023, http://archive.history.go.kr/image/viewer.do?catalog_id=AUS043_57_00C0411&gid=AUS043_57_00C0411, 16.
[21] United Nations and Economic and Social Council, eds., Commission on Human Rights, 1996, 13.
[22] United Nations and Economic and Social Council, eds., Commission on Human Rights, 1996, 14.
[23] Sel J. Hwahng, “Vaccination, Quarantine, and Hygiene: Korean Sex Slaves and No. 606 Injections during the Pacific War of World War II,” Substance Use & Misuse 44, no. 12 (2009): 1768–1802, https://doi.org/10.3109/10826080902963480, 1172.
[24] Pyong Gap Min, “Korean ‘Comfort Women,’” Gender & Society 17, no. 6 (2003): 938–57, https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243203257584, 941.
[25] Sel J. Hwahng, “Vaccination, Quarantine, and Hygiene: Korean Sex Slaves and No. 606 Injections during the Pacific War of World War II,” Substance Use & Misuse 44, no. 12 (2009): 1768–1802, https://doi.org/10.3109/10826080902963480, 1780.
[26] Eunjae Kim and Eun Kyong Shin, “Double-Edged Network Effects on Disclosing Traumatic Experiences among Korean ‘Comfort Women,’” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 38, no. 11–12 (2023): 7728–53, https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605221148218, 7742.
[27] Eunjae Kim and Eun Kyong Shin, “Double-Edged Network Effects on Disclosing Traumatic Experiences among Korean ‘Comfort Women,’” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 38, no. 11–12 (2023): 7728–53, https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605221148218, 7743-7745.
[28] United Nations and Economic and Social Council, eds., Commission on Human Rights, 1998, 14.
[29] Pamela Constable, 70 years later, a Korean ‘comfort woman’ demands apology from Japan, accessed December 5, 2023, https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/70-years-later-a-korean-comfort-woman-demands-apology-from-japan/2015/04/22/d1cf8794-e7ab-11e4-9767-6276fc9b0ada_story.html.
[30] Pyong Gap Min, essay, in Korean “Comfort Women”: Military Brothels, Brutality, and the Redress Movement (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2021), 191-192.
[31] “Announcement by Foreign Ministers of Japan and the Republic of Korea at the Joint Press Occasion,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, accessed December 10, 2023, https://www.mofa.go.jp/a_o/na/kr/page4e_000364.html.
